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# Front-end processes

## 1. Cleaning

### Processes

#### 1.1. RCA clean

##### 1.1.1. Preliminary cleaning
  * Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
  * Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
  * Hydrofluoric acid (HFA)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

##### 1.1.2. SC-1
  * Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
  * Ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

##### 1.1.3. SC-2 (used for metallization cleaning)
  * Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

##### 1.1.4. HF-last
  *  HF 

#### 1.2. Piranha clean (used for photoresist removal)
  * Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
  * Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

#### 1.3. Ozone-based cleaning
  * Ozone (O3)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

#### 1.4. APM/BPM/HPM
  * Ammonium peroxide / buffered peroxide / hydrochloric peroxide mixtures

#### 1.5. Plasma cleaning (used for photoresist removal)
  * O2 plasma / Ar plasma / H2 plasma

#### 1.6. UV/Ozone cleaning
  * Ozone (O3)
  * UV light

#### 1.7. Cryogenic cleaning
  * Carbon dioxide (CO2)
  * Argon (Ar)

#### 1.8. Ultrasonic clean
  * Acoustic waves

#### 1.9. Spin clean / Scrub
  * PVA brush
  * Deionized water (DI Water)

#### Other processes (not included)
  * Electrochemical clean

### Manufacturers
  * [LAM Research](https://www.lamresearch.com/)
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/)
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/us/en.html)
  * [Screen](https://www.screen.co.jp/)
  * [PSK](https://www.pskinc.com/producttech/dry_clean.php#interger-xp)
  * Others (Rena, AP&S, etc.)


### Equipment
  * LAM [DV-Prime & Da Vinci Product Families](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/dv-prime-da-vinci/): wet clean, spin / Photoresist removal ; particle, polymer, and residue removal ; silicon substrate thinning/stress relief
  * LAM [EOS Product Families](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/eos/): wet clean / FinFET ; Particle, polymer, and residue removal
  * TEL [Expedius](https://www.tel.com/product/expedius.html): pre-diffusion/oxidation clean, post-etch clean, resist stripping, wet etch of Oxide/Nitride for 3D NAND device / 300mm
  * TEL [Cellesta](https://www.tel.com/product/cellesta.html): Pre/Post clean, Wet etch, dry process (New IPA dry /SMD/Spin dry) / 300mm
  * TEL [NS Series](https://www.tel.com/product/ns.html): D.I. Water brush clean, N2, brush / 150 to 300mm
  * TEL [Antares](https://www.tel.com/product/antares.html): dry clean with cryogenic aerosol / 300mm (works for metal and low-k films)
  * TEL [ZETA](https://www.tel.com/product/zeta.html): Post etch clean, RCA clean, DHF wet etch (for photoresist stripping)
  * Screen [FC-3100]https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/fc-3100): Wet clean / 300mm
  * Screen [WS-620C/WS-820C/WS-820L](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/ws-620c820l): Wet clean / 150 to 200mm
  * Screen [FC-821L](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/fc-821l): Wet clean / 200mm
  * Screen [CW-2000](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/cw-2000): Wet clean (including RCA clean) / 50 to 200mm
  * Screen [SU-3400](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/su-3400): Spin processor / 300mm
  * Screen [SU-3300S](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products/ss-3300s): Spin scrubber / 300mm


### Misc
  * 30% of all front-end processing steps are cleaning steps on average
  * Advanced nodes need more cleaning (more layers for advanced memory for instance)

### Supporting images
  * [Partial process video from AP&S](https://www.ap-s.de/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/APS-Demo-Center-1.mp4)

{{:product_system.png?800|}}

Legend: QDR: Quick Dump Rising bath ; FR: Final Rinsing bath ; SD: Spin dryer ; EDR: Dump Rinsing bath


### Sources
  * Reinhardt, K., & Kern, W. (Eds.). (2018). [Handbook of silicon wafer cleaning technology. William Andrew](https://books.google.fr/books/about/Handbook_of_Silicon_Wafer_Cleaning_Techn.html?id=Os7-oQEACAAJ&redir_esc=y). *MAIN SOURCE*
  * Rużyłło, J. (Ed.). (1998). [Proceedings of the fifth international symposium on cleaning technology in semiconductor device manufacturing](https://www.electrochem.org/semiconductor_cleaning/pv_94_07.pdf). The Electrochemical Society.
  * Bera, B. (2019). [Silicon Wafer Cleaning: A Fundamental and Critical Step in
Semiconductor Fabrication Process](https://www.static-contents.youth4work.com/y4w/fc469004-19c4-4401-81ce-90d5c073564d.pdf). International Journal of Applied Nanotechnology, 5(1), 8-13.
  * Microtech Systems, [RCA Critical Cleaning Process](https://www.microtechprocess.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/MTS_RCA.pdf)
  * Allan Chemical Corporation, [Checklist for RCA Cleaning Process Chemicals](https://allanchem.com/checklist-for-rca-cleaning-process-chemicals/)
  * Modutek Corporation, [Wafer Cleaning Process](https://www.modutek.com/wafer-processing/wafer-cleaning-process/)


---------------------------------------

## 2. Oxidation

### Processes

#### 2.1. Wet oxidation
  * Water (H2O) vapor
  * Oxygen (O2)

#### 2.2. Dry oxidation
  * Oxygen (O2)
  * Nitrogen (N2)

### Manufacturers
  * [Kokusai](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products)
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/us/en/semiconductor/products/processes/rapid-thermal-processing-treatments.html)
  * [ASM](https://www.asm.com/)
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/)

### Equipment
  * Kokusai [AdvancedAce-II](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Oxidation ; CVD ; film deposition
  * Kokusai [AdvancedAce-300](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Oxidation ; LP CVD ; Diffusion ; Annealing
  * Kokusai [Vertron Revolution](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Oxidation ; CVD ; film deposition
  * Kokusai [Quixace-II](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Oxidation ; CVD ; film deposition
  * TEL [Telindy Series](https://www.tel.com/product/telindy.html): Oxidation, annealing, LPCVD / 300mm
  * See Deposition for more references


### Misc
  * [Centura Xtera EPI process](http://appliedmaterials.com/content/dam/site/prod-tech/semi/vid/xtera_animation-hb.mp4)


### Sources
  * Gronet, C. M., Knoot, P. A., Miner, G. E., Xing, G., Lopes, D. R., & Kuppurao, S. (2000, March 14). Method and apparatus for insitu vapor generation (U.S. Patent No. 6,037,273). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US6037273
  * Homma, K., & Yomiya, K. (1998, July 7). Processing furnace for oxidizing objects (U.S. Patent No. 5,777,300). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US5777300A/en
  * Yokota, Y., Ramamurthy, S., Achutharaman, V., Czarnik, C., Behdjat, M., & Olsen, C. (2006, October 5). Thermal oxidation of silicon using ozone (U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2006/0223315 A1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20060223315A1/en
  * Fukada, T., Yoo, W. S., Hiraga, Y., Kang, K., & Komatsubara, R. (2001, September). [Wet oxidation using single wafer furnace](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/3955783_Wet_oxidation_using_single_wafer_furnace). In 9th International Conference on Advanced Thermal Processing of Semiconductors, RTP 2001 (p. 120). IEEE.


---------------------------------------

## 3. Thin film deposition

### Processes

#### 3.1. Chemical Vapor Deposition (PE-CVD) (Epitaxy)
  * Silane (SiH4) + Ammonium (NH4) = Silicon Nitride (SiN)
  * Silane (SiH4) + Nitrous oxide (N2O) = Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
  * Nitrogen (N2)
  * (NH3)
  * Argon (Ar)
  * Helium (He)

#### 3.2. Atomic Layer Deposition (PE-ALD)
  * Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
  * Oxygen (O2)

#### 3.3. Cleaning
  * Tetrafluoromethane (CF4)
  * Oxygen (O2)
  * Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)


### Manufacturers
  * [Kokusai](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products)
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/us/en/semiconductor/products/processes/rapid-thermal-processing-treatments.html)
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/product/telindy.html)

### Equipment
  * Kokusai [Tsuguri](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Thin film deposition
  * Kokusai [Tsuguri-C2](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Thin film deposition
  * Kokusai [Quixace-LV](https://www.kokusai-electric.com/en/products?category-tag=%E6%88%90%E8%86%9C%E3%83%97%E3%83%AD%E3%82%BB%E3%82%B9%E8%A3%85%E7%BD%AE): Thin film deposition
  * Applied Materials [Centura Prime EPI](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centura-prime-epi.html): epitaxial growth
  * Applied Materials [Centura Xtera EPI](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centura-xtera-epi.html): epitaxial growth / advanced logic (GAA, FinFET) and memory (3D)
  * See Deposition for more references


### Sources
  * Hollister, A., Reddy, S., Fox, K., Sriram, M., & Womack, J. (2015, August 25). PECVD deposition of smooth silicon films (U.S. Patent No. 9,117,668). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US9117668B2/en
  * Kintek, [What gases are used in PECVD? Master the Chemistry for Superior Thin Films](https://kintekfurnace.com/faqs/what-gases-are-used-in-pecvd)
  * Lavoie, A., Saly, M. J., Moser, D., Odedra, R., & Kanjolia, R. (2013, August 15). Precursors for plasma activated conformal film deposition (U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2013/0210241 A1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20130210241A1/en
  * NCCAVS Plasma Applications Group (PAG) Users Group. (2017, September 13). [Advances in atomic layer deposition (ALD)](https://nccavs-usergroups.avs.org/wp-content/uploads/PAG2017/PAG-Agenda-917-Final.pdf): PAG users group meeting agenda [Conference agenda]. Northern California Chapter of the American Vacuum Society.
  * Sigma-Aldrich. (n.d.). [Silicon nitride by atomic layer deposition](https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/FR/fr/technical-documents/technical-article/materials-science-and-engineering/chemical-vapor-deposition/silicon-nitride-atomic-layer) [Technical article]. MilliporeSigma. 


---------------------------------------

## 4. Photoresist coating

### Processes

#### 4.1. Photoresist for DUV or older (options)
  * Peroxo-polyacids of tungsten
  * Tungsten
  * Niobium
  * Titanium
  * Tantalum

#### 4.2. Photoresist for EUV (options)
  * Tin-oxide (SnO2)
  * Hafnium oxide (HfO2)
  * Zirconium oxide (ZrO2)
  * Zinc oxide (ZnO)

### Manufacturers
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/)
  * [Fujifilm](https://www.fujifilm.com/fr/en/business/semiconductor-materials/photoresists)
  * [JSR](https://www.jsr.co.jp/jsr_e/products/ec/)
  * [Shin Etsu Chemical](https://www.shinetsu.co.jp/en/products/electronics-materials/photoresist/)

### Equipments
  * TEL [Clean Track Act 12](https://www.tel.com/product/act.html): DUV / 200 to 300mm
  * TEL [Lithius Series](https://www.tel.com/product/lithius.html): i-line, KrF, ArF, ArFi, EUV / 200 to 300mm
  * See Deposition for more references

### Misc
  * Material used for negative photoresist: aromatic xylene
  * Material used for positive photoresist: ethyl ethoxyacetate
  * Look into resist process tools ("tracks")

### Sources
  * Woo, C., Kang, E., Kim, J., Kim, J., Kim, T., Namgung, R., Moon, K., Cheon, H., Chae, S., & Han, S. (2021, October 7). Semiconductor photoresist composition and method of forming patterns using the composition (U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2021/0311387 A1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. https://patents.google.com/patent/US20210311387A1/en
  * Wang, X., Tao, P., Wang, Q., Zhao, R., Liu, T., Hu, Y., ... & He, X. (2023). [Trends in photoresist materials for extreme ultraviolet lithography: A review](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1369702123001785). Materials Today, 67, 299-319.
  * Hasan, M. W., Deeb, L., Kumaniaev, S., Wei, C., & Wang, K. (2024). [Recent advances in metal-oxide-based photoresists for EUV lithography](https://doi.org/10.3390/mi15091122). Micromachines, 15(9), 1122.
  * MicroChemicals GmbH. (n.d.). [Spin-coating](https://www.microchemicals.com/dokumente/application_notes/spin_coating_photoresist.pdf) [Application note].


---------------------------------------

## 5. Photolithography

### Processes

#### 5.1. DUV KrF
  * Krypton (Kr)
  * Fluor (F2)
  * Neon (Ne)
  * Calcium fluoride (CaF2)
  * Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

#### 5.2. DUV ArF
  * Argon (Ar)
  * Fluor (F2)
  * Neon (Ne)
  * Calcium fluoride (CaF2)
  * Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

#### 5.3. DUV ArFi
  * Ultra-pure water (UPW)
  * Argon (Ar)
  * Fluor (F2)
  * Neon (Ne)
  * Calcium fluoride (CaF2)
  * Silicon dioxide (SiO2)

#### 5.4. EUV
  * Tin (Sn)
  * Hydrogen (H2)
  * Carbon dioxide (CO2)

### Manufacturers
  * [ASML](https://www.asml.com) (EUV only provider)
  * [Nikon](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/)
  * [Canon](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/)

### Equipments
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:2150i](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt-2150i): DUV ArFi
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:21OOi](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt2100i): DUV ArFi
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:2050i](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt2050i): DUV ArFi
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:2000i](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt2000i): DUV ArFi
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:1980Fi](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt1980fi): DUV ArFi
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:1470](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt1470): DUV ArF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:1460K](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt1460k): DUV ArF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:1060K](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt-1060k): DUV KrF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:870B](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt-870b): DUV KrF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXT:870](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxt870): DUV KrF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:860N](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt860n): DUV KrF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:860M](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt-860m): DUV KrF
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:400M](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt-400m): i-line
  * ASML [TWINSCAN XT:260](https://www.asml.com/en/products/duv-lithography-systems/twinscan-xt-260): i-line
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXE:3800E](https://www.asml.com/en/products/euv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxe-3800e): EUV
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXE:3600D](https://www.asml.com/en/products/euv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxe-3600d): EUV
  * ASML [TWINSCAN NXE:3400C](https://www.asml.com/en/products/euv-lithography-systems/twinscan-nxe3400c): EUV
  * ASML [TWINSCAN EXE:5000](https://www.asml.com/en/products/euv-lithography-systems/twinscan-exe-5000): EUV High NA
  * ASML [TWINSCAN EXE:5200B](https://www.asml.com/en/products/euv-lithography-systems/twinscan-exe-5200b): EUV High NA
  * Nikon [NSR-S636E](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArFi
  * Nikon [NSR-S635E](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArFi
  * Nikon [NSR-S625E](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArFi
  * Nikon [NSR-S333F](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArF
  * Nikon [NSR-S322F](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArF
  * Nikon [NSR-S220D](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): DUV ArF
  * Nikon [NSR-SF155](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/lineup/): i-line steppers
  * Nikon [NSR-2205iL1](https://www.nikon.com/business/semi/sp_nsr-2205il1/): i-line steppers
  * Canon [FPA-6300ES6a](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa6300es6a.html): KrF
  * Canon [FPA-6300ESW](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa6300esw.html): KrF
  * Canon [FPA-3030EX6](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa3030ex6.html): KrF
  * Canon [FPA-5550iZ2](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa5550iz2.html): i-line steppers
  * Canon [FPA-5550iX](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa5550ix.html): i-line steppers
  * Canon [FPA-3030i6](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa3030i6.html): i-line steppers
  * Canon [FPA-3030i5a](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa3030i5a.html): i-line steppers
  * Canon [FPA-3030iWa](https://global.canon/en/product/indtech/semicon/fpa3030iwa.html): i-line steppers

### Misc
  * EUV uses Mo/Si mirrors (molybdenum, silicon), 100 layers
  * ASML's NXE energy use per wafer pass (NXE:3800E, measured in 2025): 5.5 kWh (2024: 5.9 kWh) Source: [ASML Annual Report 2025](https://ourbrand.asml.com/m/71076aaad607de4d/original/asml-2025-annual-report-based-on-us-gaap.pdf#page=1), p.153


### Sources
  * Ershov, A. I., Partlo, W. N., Brown, D. J. W., & Fomenkov, I. V. (2012). Laser system (U.S. Patent Application No. US 2012/0002687 A1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. (Later granted as US 8,908,735 B2).
  * Bowering, N. R., Hansson, B. A. M., & Simmons, R. D. (2008). EUV light source (U.S. Patent No. US 7,453,077 B2). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
  * Bykanov, A. N., Bowering, N., Fomenkov, I. V., Ershov, A. I., & Khodykin, O. (2011). Laser produced plasma EUV light source (U.S. Patent No. US 8,035,092 B2). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
  * Dinger, U., Eisert, F., Koehler, S., Ochse, A., Zellner, J., Lowisch, M., & Laufer, T. (2007). EUV projection lens with mirrors made from material with differing signs for the rise in temperature dependence of the thermal expansion coefficient around the zero transition temperature (U.S. Patent Application No. US 2007/0035814 A1). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. (Later granted as US 7,557,902 B2)
  * Fomenkov, I. (2017, November 7). [EUV source for high volume manufacturing: Performance at 250 W and key technologies for power scaling](https://euvlitho.com/2017/S1.pdf) [Conference presentation]. 2017 EUV Source Workshop, Dublin, Ireland. 
  * Alagna, P., Rechtsteiner, G., Timoshkov, V., Wong, P., Conley, W., & Baselmans, J. (2016, March). [Lower BW and its impact on the patterning performance](https://www.cymer.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Cymer_SPIE_AdvancedLithography_2016.pdf). In Optical Microlithography XXIX (Vol. 9780, pp. 9-20). SPIE.
  * Linde plc. (n.d.). [Lithography gases for electronics](https://www.linde-gas.com/industries/electronics/gases-and-services/lithography). 
  * Nihon Kessho Kogaku Co., Ltd. (n.d.). [Product introduction: Optical crystals CaF2](https://nk-k.co.jp/en/products/optical/). 
  *  Hellma Materials GmbH. (2012). [Lithotec calcium fluoride: VUV/DUV/UV, VIS and IR applications](https://www.sydor.com/wp-content/uploads/Hellma-Materials-Calcium-Fluoride-CaF2.pdf) [Product datasheet]. Distributed by Sydor Optics. 
  * Letz, M., Engel, A., Mannstadt, W., Parthier, L., Natura, U., & Knapp, K. (2004, May). [CaF2 for DUV lens fabrication: basic material properties and dynamic light-matter interaction](https://www.spiedigitallibrary.org/conference-proceedings-of-spie/5377/0000/CaF2-for-DUV-lens-fabrication--basic-material-properties-and/10.1117/12.536666.short). In Optical Microlithography XVII (Vol. 5377, pp. 1797-1804). SPIE.
  * Louis, E., Yakshin, A. E., Goerts, P. C., Oestreich, S., Stuik, R., Maas, E. L., ... & Ulm, G. (2000, July). [Progress in Mo/Si multilayer coating technology for EUVL optics](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228819605_Progress_in_MoSi_multilayer_coating_technology_for_EUVL_optics). In Emerging Lithographic Technologies IV (Vol. 3997, pp. 406-411). SPIE.


---------------------------------------

## 6. Etching

### Processes

#### 6.1. Reactive ion etching
  * Carbon tetrafluoride (CF4)
  * Xenon difluoride (XeF2)
  * Chlorine (Cl2)
  * Fluor (F2)
  * Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)

#### 6.2. Deep reactive ion etching
  * Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
  * Octafluorocyclobutane (C4F8)

#### 6.3. Ion milling
  * Argon (Ar)

#### 6.4. Atomic layer etching
  * Chlorine (Cl2)
  * Argon (Ar)

#### 6.5. Wet etching
  * Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
  * Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  * Tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH)
  * Buffered oxide etchants (BOE)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)


### Manufacturers
  * [LAM Research](https://www.lamresearch.com/products/our-processes/etch/)
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/product/tactras.html)
  * [Samco](https://www.samcointl.com/processes/etching/atomic-layer-etching/ale-of-sio2/)
  * [ACM Research](https://www.acmr.com/tools-and-processes/wet-processing/wet-etching-systems/)
  * [Screen](https://www.screen.co.jp/spe/en/products)
  * [PSK](https://www.pskinc.com/producttech/dry_clean.php)
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library.html)

### Equipments
  * LAM [Kiyo Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/kiyo-product-family/):  Reactive ion etch / Shallow trench isolation, Source/drain engineering, High-k/metal gate, FinFET and tri-gate, Multi-patterning, 3D NAND
  * LAM [Akara](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/akara/#):  Plasma-etch / 3D NAND, CFET, 3D RAM
  * LAM [Coronus](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/coronus-product-family/):  Post-etch for shallow trench isolation, Pre and post deposition, Pre-lithography, Metal film removal, Wet and dry etch bevel protection / 3D NAND
  * LAM [Flex Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/flex-product-family/): Atomic Layer Etch (ALE), Cryogenic etching, Reactive ion etch (RIE) / Low-k and ultra low-k dual damascene ; Self-aligned contacts ; Capacitor cell ; Mask open ; 3D NAND high aspect ratio hole, trench, contact 
  * LAM [Gamma Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/gamma-product-family/): dry strip (photoresist removal) / Advanced memory and logic ; High-dose implant strip (HDIS) ; Bulk strip ; Descum
  * LAM [Selective Etch Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/selective-etch-product-family/): dry strip (photoresist removal) / Advanced memory (3D NAND, DRAM) and logic (GAA) ; Dummy poly removal ; SiGe removal (GAA) ; Si trimming ; Source/drain deposition preclean ; Low-k material removal ; Surface decontamination and modification
  * LAM [Sense.i Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/sense-i/): Reactive ion etch / Advanced memory (3D NAND, DRAM) and logic ; Conductor etch ; Dielectric etch
  * LAM [Syndion Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/syndion-product-family/): Deep Reactive Ion Etch (DRIE) / Through-silicon vias (TSVs) for high bandwidth memory and advanced packaging
  * LAM [Vantex Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/vantex-product-family/):  Cryogenic Etching Reactive Ion Etch (RIE) / 3D NAND high aspect ratio hole, trench, contact ; 
Capacitor cell
  * Applied Materials [Centris Spectral Mo ALD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centris-spectral-moly-ald.html): ALD / Advanced logic (GAA, CFET) and memory (3D)
  * Applied Materials [Olympia ALD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/olympia-ald.html): ALD for dielectric film deposition / Advanced logic (FinFET) and memory (3D)
  * Applied Materials [Centris Sym3 Y Etch](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centris-sym3-y-etch.html): Unclear / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Centura Etch](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centura-etch.html): RIE and DRIE / 150 to 300mm
  * Applied Materials [Producer Etch](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-etch.html): Unclear
  * Applied Materials [Producer Selectra Etch](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-selectra-etch.html): Unclear / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Sym3 Z Magnum Etch](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/sym3z-etch.html): Plasma etch / advanced logic (GAA, CFET) and memory


### Sources
  * Romano, L. (2025). [Etching: The art of semiconductor micromachining](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11857098/). Micromachines, 16(2), 213.
  * Nojiri, K. (2015). [Dry etching technology for semiconductors](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-10295-5) (pp. 1-116). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
  * https://patents.google.com/patent/US20210311387A1/en
  * Kanarik, K. J., Tan, S., & Gottscho, R. A. (2018). [Atomic layer etching: rethinking the art of etch](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpclett.8b00997). The journal of physical chemistry letters, 9(16), 4814-4821.
  * O’Hara, A. (2013). [Method for etching a sacrificial silicon oxide layer](https://patents.google.com/patent/JP5290172B2/). Japan Patent JP5290172B2. 
  * Li, Y., Settelmaier, K. T., & Bentner, J. (2009). [Anisotropic wet etch device and its production method](https://patents.google.com/patent/CN100524653C/) (China Patent No. CN100524653C). International Business Machines Corporation.
  * Chinn, J. D., & Soukane, S. (2005). [Etch process for etching microstructures](https://patents.google.com/patent/US6936183B2/en) (U.S. Patent No. US6936183B2). Applied Materials, Inc.
  * Femto-St (n.d.). [Wet etching bench (KOH BHF)](https://www.femto-st.fr/fr/node/1425).


---------------------------------------

## 7. Doping

### Processes

#### 7.1. Ion implantation
  * Boron trifluoride (BF3)
  * Phosphine (PH3)
  * Arsine (AsH3)

#### 7.2. Thermal diffusion
  * Boron nitride
  * Doped oxide glass
  * Boron tribromide (BBr3)
  * Phosphorus oxychloride (POCl3)
  * Phosphine (PH3)
  * Diborane (B2H6)

#### 7.3. Annealing (RTA / spike / laser)
  * Heat (900-1100°C)
  * Laser source

#### 7.4. Doped epitaxy
  * Phosphine (PH3)
  * Diborane (B2H6)

#### 7.5. Plasma doping (PLAD)
  * Diborane (B2H6)

### Manufacturers
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/us/en/semiconductor/products/processes/implant.html)
  * [Axcelis](https://www.axcelis.com/products/purion-ion-implantation-equipment/)
  * [Sumitomo Heavy Industries](https://www.shi.co.jp/english/products/machinery/ion/index.html)

### Equipement
  * Applied Materials [VIISta 900XP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-900xp.html): Medium current ion implant 
  * Applied Materials [VIISta 3000XP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-3000xp.html): Medium current ion implant 
  * Applied Materials [VIISta 900 3D](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-900-3d.html): Medium current ion implant / Advanced logic and memory: FinFET, 3D NAND and DRAM (<2Xnm)
  * Applied Materials [VIISta HCP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-hcp.html): High current ion implant
  * Applied Materials [VIISta PLAD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-plad.html): PLAD
  * Applied Materials [VIISta Trident](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/viista-trident.html): High current ion implant  / Advanced logic and memory (<2Xnm)
  * Axcelis [Purion H6 Series](https://www.axcelis.com/products/purion-h-high-current-ion-implantation/): High current ion implant 
  * Axcelis [Purion XE Series](https://www.axcelis.com/products/purion-xe-series-high-energy-ion-implantation/): High energy ion implant
  * Axcelis [Purion M Series](https://www.axcelis.com/products/purion-m-mid-current-ion-implantation/): Medium current ion implant
  * Axcelis [Purion H200 Series](https://www.axcelis.com/products/medium-energy/): Medium energy ion implant (high current) / Mature logic
  * Sumitomo [Saion](https://www.shi.co.jp/english/products/machinery/ion/index.html): High to medium current ion implant / 200 to 300mm
  * Sumitomo [SHX III/S](https://shi-ms.com/en/products/shx-3-hc/): High current ion implant / 300mm ; advanced logic and memory
  * Sumitomo [NV-GSDIII-180](https://shi-ms.com/en/products/nv-gsd3-180/): High current ion implant / 100 to 200mm
  * Sumitomo [MC3-II-GP](https://shi-ms.com/en/products/mc3-2-mc/): Medium current ion implant / 200 to 300mm
  * Applied Materials [Producer Pyra Anneal](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-pyra-anneala.html): Annealing
  * Applied Materials [Vantage Astra DSA](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/vantage-astra-dsa.html): Annealing
  * Applied Materials [Vantage RadOx RTP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/vantage-radox-rtp.html): Annealing, Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP)
  * Applied Materials [Vantage Radiance Plus RTP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/vantage-radiance-plus-rtp.html): Annealing, Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP)
  * Applied Materials [Vantage Vulcan RTP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/vantage-vulcan-rtp.html): Annealing, Rapid Thermal Processing (RTP)
  * Applied Materials [Centura DPN HD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/centura-dpn-hd.html): Annealing, Decoupled Plasma Nitridation (DPN) / advanced logic and memory

### Misc
  * A CMOS integrated circuit with embedded memory may require more than 60 implant steps (Applied Materials).
  * A large wafer fabricator may process up to 50,000 wafers/month, with each wafer requiring 20 to 30 implants. This output requires the use of about 20 implanters, each with the capacity to implant more than 200 wafers/h (Axcelis).[Link](https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/Ion_Implantation_in_Silicon_Technology.pdf)

### Supporting images
  * [Axcelis Purion H6   * High Current Ion Implanter](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-qvAKKLQVM)

{{:screenshot_2026-03-24_at_16.11.02.png?800|}}


### Sources
  * Schroder, D. K. (2015). Semiconductor material and device characterization. John Wiley & Sons.
  * Sadeghfar, F., & Ghaedi, M. (2021). Photocatalytic treatment of pollutants in aqueous media. In M. Ghaedi (Ed.), *Photocatalysis: Fundamental processes and applications  * (Vol. 32, pp. 725–759). Elsevier. [https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818806-4.00011-5](https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818806-4.00011-5)
  * May, G. S., & Spanos, C. J. (2006). Fundamentals of semiconductor manufacturing and process control. John Wiley & Sons.
  * Francis, T. A., Hasaka, S., Brabant, P. D., Torres, R. Jr., He, H., Reznicek, A., Adam, T. N., & Sadana, D. K. (2014). *Methods and apparatus for selective epitaxy of Si-containing materials and substitutionally doped crystalline Si-containing material  * (U.S. Patent No. US8759200B2). U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. [https://patents.google.com/patent/US8759200B2/en](https://patents.google.com/patent/US8759200B2/en) ([patents.google.com][1])
  * Huet, K., Mazzamuto, F., Tabata, T., Toque-Tresonne, I., & Mori, Y. (2017). Doping of semiconductor devices by Laser Thermal Annealing. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 62, 92-102.
  * Qin, S., Hu, Y. J., & McTeer, A. (2012, May). PLAD (plasma doping) on 22nm technology node and beyond-evolutionary and/or revolutionary. In 2012 12th International Workshop on Junction Technology (pp. 1-11). IEEE.
  * Raj, D. M., Godet, L., Chamberlain, N., Hadidi, K., Singh, V., & Papasouliotis, G. D. (2011, January). Optimization and Control of Plasma Doping Processes. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1321, No. 1, pp. 142-145). American Institute of Physics.
  * Gupta, A., Ray, A., Ameen, M., & Rzeszut, R. (2022). Introducing the Purion H200™ single wafer high current implanter: A. Gupta et al. MRS Advances, 7(36), 1295-1300. [Link](https://www.axcelis.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Introducing_the_PurionH200_Single_Wafer_High_Current_Implanter.pdf)


---------------------------------------

## 8. Deposition

### Processes

#### 8.1. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

##### 8.1.1. Thermal CVD / Plasma CVD
  * Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
  * Silicon nitride (Si3N4)
  * Polysilicon
  * Tungsten (W)
  * Nitrogen (N2)
  * Hydrogen (H2)
  * Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
  * Silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4)

##### 8.1.2. Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
  * Hafnium oxide (HfO2)
  * Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
  * Zinc oxide (ZnO)
  * Zircon oxide (ZrO2)
  * Silicon oxide (SiO2)
  * Yttrium oxide (Y2O3)
  * Titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4)
  * Zirconium (Zr)
  * Titanium nitride (TiN)
  * Tantalum nitride (TaN)
  * Tungsten nitride (WN)
  * Ruthenium (Ru)
  * Oxygen (O2)
  * Ammonia (NH3)

#### 8.2. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

##### 8.2.1. Sputtering
  * Titanium (Ti)
  * Tungsten (W)
  * Tungsten-titanium (W-Ti)
  * Aluminium (Al), including alloys
  * Tantalum (Ta)
  * Copper (Cu), including alloys
  * Nickel-vanadium (Ni-V)
  * Silicides

#### 8.3. Electrochemical Deposition (ECD) / Plating
  * To be defined
### Manufacturers
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library.html)
  * [LAM Research](https://www.lamresearch.com/)
  * [ASM International](https://www.asm.com/)
  * [TEL](https://www.tel.com/)
### Equipments
  * LAM [Altus Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/altus-product-family/):  CVD (W) and ALD (WN, Mo) processes/ Advanced memory and logic: 3D NAND, DRAM, Interconnect, WN Barrier (via and metallizatio)
  * LAM [Coronus](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/coronus-product-family/):  Post-etch for shallow trench isolation, Pre and post deposition, Pre-lithography, Metal film removal, Wet and dry etch bevel protection / 3D NAND
  * LAM [Sabre Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/sabre/):  ECD (Cu) / Logic interconnect ; Memory interconnect
  * LAM [Sola Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/sola-product-family/): ultraviolet thermal processing (UVTP) / Low-k film treatment ; Strained nitride film treatment
  * LAM [Speed Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/speed-product-family/): High-Density Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (HDP-CVD) / Shallow trench isolation (STI) ; Pre-metal dielectrics (PMD) ; Inter-layer dielectrics (ILD) ; Inter-metal dielectrics (IMD) ; Passivation layers
  * LAM [Striker Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/striker-product-family/): Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) / Gapfill dielectrics ; Conformal liners ; Patterning spacers and masks ; Hermetic encapsulation ; Etch stop layers ; Optical films
  * LAM [Vector Product Family](https://www.lamresearch.com/product/vector-product-family/): Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) / Hardmask films ; Anti-reflective layers (ARLs) ; Passivation layers ; Diffusion barriers ; Multi-layer stack films for 3D NAND ; Core layers for double and quadruple patterning layers ; Inter-metal layers ; Global wafer stress management layers 
  * Applied Materials [Producer XP Precision Pioneer CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/applied-producer-xp-pioneer-cvd.html): CVD / Logic and DRAM
  * Applied Materials [Centura Ultima HDP CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/applied-producer-xp-pioneer-cvd.html): Plasma CVD / 200 to 300mm
  * Applied Materials [Endura Volta Cobalt CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-volta-cvd-cobalt.html): CVD for interconnect / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Endura Volta Selective W CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-volta-selective-w-cvd.html): CVD for gapfill/contact
  * Applied Materials [Endura Volta W CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-volta-cvd-w.html#carousel-47cccc8c9e-item-a8bc3be250-tabpanel): CVD for gapfill/contact
  * Applied Materials [Producer XP Prcesion CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-xp-precision-cvd.html): CVD for film deposition / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Producer BLOk PECVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-blok-pecvd.html): PECVD for interconnect
  * Applied Materials [Producer Black Diamond PECVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-black-diamond-pecvd.html): PECVD for dielectric film deposition / advanced logic and memory 
  * Applied Materials [Producer CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-cvd.html): CVD for film deposition
  * Applied Materials [Producer DARC PECVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-darc-pecvd.html): PECVD for film deposition / mature logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Producer Eterna FCVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-eterna-fcvd.html): FCVD for gapfill/contact
  * Applied Materials [Producer HARP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-harp.html): CVD for HAR/gapfill
  * Applied Materials [Producer Precision APF PECVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/producer-precision-apf-pecvd.html): PECVD for film deposition / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Producer XP Precision Draco CVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/applied-producer-xp-precision-draco-cvd.html): CVD for film deposition / DRAM
  * Applied Materials [Axcela PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/axcela-pvd.html): PVD for sputtering
  * Applied Materials [Endura ALPS PVD (Co&Ni)](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-alps-pvd-alps-co-ni.html): Low-pressure PVD for metallization
  * Applied Materials [Endura Amber PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-amber-pvd.html): PVD for metallization
  * Applied Materials [Endura Avenir RF PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-avenir-rf-pvd.html): PVD for metallization / advanced logic
  * Applied Materials [Endura Cirrus HT Co PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-cirrus-ht-co-pvd.html): PVD for metallization (Co) / DRAM
  * Applied Materials [Endura Cirrus HTX PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-cirrus-htx-pvd.html): PVD for hard masks (TiN)
  * Applied Materials [Endura Clover MRAM PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-clover-mram-pvd.html): PVD (MgO) / advanced memory (MRAM)
  * Applied Materials [Endura CuBS RF XT PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-cubs-rf-xt-pvd.html): PVD (TaN/Ta/Cu)
  * Applied Materials [Endura iLB PVD/ALD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-ilb-pvd-ald.html): ALD (TiN)
  * Applied Materials [Endura Impulse PCRAM PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-impulse-pcram-pvd.html): PVD / advanced memory (PCRAM, ReRAM)
  * Applied Materials [Endura Ioniq W PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-ioniq-w-pvd.html): PVD (W) / advanced logic and memory
  * Applied Materials [Endura PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-pvd.html): PVD for metallization
  * Applied Materials [Versa XLR2 W PVD](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/endura-versa-xlr2-w-pvd.html): PVD (W)


### Supporting images

{{:2_process_sequence.jpg?800|}}

### Sources
  * Sarkar, J. (2010). Sputtering materials for VLSI and thin film devices. William Andrew.
  * Schepis, D., & Seshan, K. (Eds.). (2024). Handbook of Thin Film Deposition: Theory, Technology and Semiconductor Applications. Elsevier.


---------------------------------------

## 9. Chemical Mechanical Planarization (CMP)

### Processes

#### 9.1. Planarization
  * Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
  * Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
  * Cerium oxide (CeO2)
  * Deionized water (DI Water)
  * Hydrofluoric acid (HF)
  * Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
  * Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
  * Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
  * Ammonium hydroxide(NH4OH)

### Manufacturers
  * [Applied Materials](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library.html)
  * [EBARA](https://www.ebara.com/global-en/products/?type=Semiconductor%20manufacturing%20equipment)
  * [Hwatsing](https://www.hwatsing.com/en/)

### Equipment
  * Applied Materials [Opta CMP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/opta-cmp.html): metal and non-metal CMP; single-step batch and balanced/unbalanced multi-step sequential polishing; thick and thin film removal / advanced logic and memory (3D) <5nm
  * Applied Materials [Reflexion LK CMP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/reflexion-lk-cmp.html): 300mm
  * Applied Materials [Reflexion LK Prime CMP](https://www.appliedmaterials.com/eu/en/product-library/reflexion-lk-prime-cmp.html#carousel-53640c7623-item-354f005d32-tabpanel): advanced logic and memory
  * Ebara [F-REX300XA](https://www.ebara.com/global-en/products/FREX300XA/): 300mm
  * Ebara [F-REX200M2](https://www.ebara.com/global-en/products/FREX/): 200mm


### Misc
  * [Ebara catalog](https://www.ebara.com/content/dam/ebara/grand-masters/entities/en/products/precision-pump/pdf/80002E_26_20.pdf)
  * Chemical Mechanical Planarization, [CMP Process Fundamentals: CMP Tools and Process](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2z4lq-Ms_OU) ; [CMP Process Fundamentals: CMP Slurries](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lWvvKGkFDfk)

### Sources
  * Zantye, P. B., Kumar, A., & Sikder, A. K. (2004). Chemical mechanical planarization for microelectronics applications. Materials Science and Engineering: R: Reports, 45(3-6), 89-220.
  * Seo, J. (2021). A review on chemical and mechanical phenomena at the wafer interface during chemical mechanical planarization. Journal of Materials Research, 36(1), 235-257.
  * Seo, J., & Paik, U. (2016). Preparation and characterization of slurry for chemical mechanical planarization (CMP). In Advances in chemical mechanical planarization (CMP) (pp. 273-298). Woodhead Publishing.
  * Kim, H. J. (2018). Abrasive for chemical mechanical polishing (pp. 183-201). Rijeka: InTech
  * Lee, J., He, S., Song, G., & Hogan Jr, C. J. (2022). Size distribution monitoring for chemical mechanical polishing slurries: An intercomparison of electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, and differential mobility analysis. Powder Technology, 396, 395-405.

---------------------------------------